The
United Nations defines violence against women as 'any act of gender-based
violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental
harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or
arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private
life.' (WHO, 2011).
Intimate
partner violence refers to behaviour in an intimate relationship that causes
physical, sexual or psychological harm, including physical aggression, sexual
coercion, and psychological abuse and controlling behaviours.
Sexual
violence is any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual
comments or advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed against a
person’s sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their
relationship to the victim, in any setting. It includes rape, defined as the
physically forced or otherwise coerced penetration of the vulva or anus with a
penis, other body part or object.
Some
historians believe that the history of violence against women is tied to the
history of women being viewed as property and a gender role assigned to be
subservient to men and also other women. The UN Declaration on the Elimination
of Violence against Women (1993) states that "violence against women is a
manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women,
which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and
to the prevention of the full advancement of women, and that violence against
women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a
subordinate position compared with men.” In the 1870s courts in the United
States stopped recognizing the common-law principle that a husband had the
right to "physically chastise an errant wife". In the UK the
traditional right of a husband to inflict moderate corporal punishment on his
wife in order to keep her "within the bounds of duty" was removed in
1891(UNO, 1993).
Types of violence
1. Domestic
violence
Women
are more likely to be victimized by someone that they are intimate with,
commonly called "Intimate Partner Violence" or (IPV). The impact of
domestic violence in the sphere of total violence against women can be
understood through the example that 40-70% of murders of women are committed by
their husband or boyfriend. Studies have shown that violence is not always
perpetrated as a form of physical violence but can also be psychological and
verbal. In unmarried relationships this is commonly called dating violence,
whereas in the context of marriage it is called domestic violence. Instances of
IPV tend not to be reported to police and thus many experts believe that the
true magnitude of the problem is hard to estimate. Women are much more likely
than men to be murdered by an intimate partner. Though this form of violence is
often portrayed as an issue within the context of heterosexual relationships,
it also occurs in lesbian relationships, daughter-mother relationships,
roommate relationships and other domestic relationships involving two women.
Violence against women in lesbian relationships is about as common as violence
against women in heterosexual relationships.
2. Diagnosis
planning
Couples
with marital disorders sometimes come to clinical attention because the couple
recognizes long-standing dissatisfaction with their marriage and come to the
clinician on their own initiative or are referred by an astute health care
professional. Secondly, there is serious violence in the marriage which is "usually the husband battering the wife".
In these cases the emergency room or a legal authority often is the first to
notify the clinician. Most importantly, marital violence "is a major risk
factor for serious injury and even death and women in violent marriages are at
much greater risk of being seriously injured or killed. There is current
considerable controversy over whether male-to-female marital violence is best
regarded as a reflection of male psychopathology and control or whether there
is an empirical base and clinical utility for conceptualizing these patterns as
relational.
3. Mob
violence
Some
women have been sexually abused and were targeted not just because they are
women, but because they are living alone and are economically independent.
4. State
violence
Many
women underwent extrajudicial punishment in labor camps of and women faces
problems in camps.
· War
and militarism
Militarism
produces special environments that allow for increased violence against women.
For example, during World War II, the Japanese military established brothels
for soldiers, exploiting women for the purpose of creating access and
entitlement for men.
Violence in empowerment systems
When
police officers misuse their power as agents of the state to physically and
sexually harass and assault women, the survivors feel much less able to report
the violence. It is standard procedure for police to force entry into the
victim's home even after the victim's numerous requests for them to go away. Government
agencies often disregard the victim's right to freedom of association with
their perpetrator. Shelter workers are often reduced themselves to contributing
to violence against women by exploiting their vulnerability in exchange for a
paying job.
Activism
Many
activists believe that working towards the elimination of domestic violence
means working to eliminate a societal hierarchy enforced through sexism. Women
of Color Against Violence cited racism within the anti-violence movement and
suggest that violence against women will not end until the anti-violence
movement re-directs its goal from "ending violence against women" to
"ending violence against women of color." The same conclusion can be
drawn for other systems of oppression.
Scope of the problem
Population-level
surveys based on reports from victims provide the most accurate estimates of
the prevalence of intimate partner violence and sexual violence in non-conflict
settings. The WHO Multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence
against women in 10 mainly developing countries found that, among women aged 15
to 49 years:
·
between 15% of women in Japan and 70% of
women in Ethiopia and Peru reported physical and/or sexual violence by an
intimate partner;
·
between 0.3–11.5% of women reported
experiencing sexual violence by a non-partner;
·
The first sexual experience for many
women was reported as forced – 24% in rural Peru, 28% in Tanzania, 30% in rural
Bangladesh, and 40% in South Africa.
Source: - World Health
Organization, 2011
Intimate
partner and sexual violence are mostly perpetrated by men against girls and
women. However, sexual violence against boys is also common. International
studies reveal that approximately 20% of women and 5–10% of men report being
victims of sexual violence as children.
Health consequences
Intimate
partner and sexual violence have serious short- and long-term physical, mental,
sexual and reproductive health problems for victims and for their children, and
lead to high social and economic costs.
Health
effects can include headaches, back pain, abdominal pain, fibromyalgia,
gastrointestinal disorders, limited mobility and poor overall health. In some
cases, both fatal and non-fatal injuries can result.
Intimate
partner violence and sexual violence can lead to unintended pregnancies,
gynecological problems, induced abortions and sexually transmitted infections,
including HIV. Intimate partner violence in pregnancy also increases the
likelihood of miscarriage, stillbirth, pre-term delivery and low birth weight.
These
forms of violence can lead to depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, sleep
difficulties, eating disorders, and emotional distress and suicide attempts.
Sexual
violence, particularly during childhood, can lead to increased smoking, drug
and alcohol misuse, and risky sexual behaviors in later life. It is also
associated with perpetration of violence (for males) and being a victim of
violence (for females).
Impact on children
Children
who grow up in families where there is intimate partner violence may suffer a
range of behavioural and emotional disturbances that can be associated with the
perpetration or experiencing of violence later in life.
Intimate
partner violence has also been associated with higher rates of infant and child
mortality and morbidity (e.g. diarrheal disease, malnutrition).
Social and economic costs
The
social and economic costs are enormous and have ripple effects throughout
society. Women may suffer isolation, inability to work, loss of wages, lack of
participation in regular activities and limited ability to care for themselves
and their children.
Risk factors
Factors
found to be associated with intimate partner and sexual violence – or risk
factors – occur within individuals, families and communities and wider society.
Some factors are associated with perpetrators of violence, some are associated
with the victims of violence and some are associated with both.
Risk factors for both intimate
partner and sexual violence include:
· - lower levels of education (perpetrators
and victims);
· - exposure to child maltreatment
(perpetrators and victims);
· - witnessing parental violence
(perpetrators and victims);
· - antisocial personality disorder
(perpetrators);
· - harmful use of alcohol (perpetrators and
victims);
· - males who have multiple partners or are
suspected by their partners of infidelity (perpetrators); and
· - Attitudes that are accepting of violence
(perpetrators and victims).
Risk factors specific to intimate
partner violence include:
· - past history of violence as a
perpetrator or victim;
· - Marital discord and dissatisfaction
(perpetrators and victims).
Risk factors specific to sexual
violence perpetration include:
· - beliefs in family honour and sexual
purity;
· - ideologies of male sexual entitlement;
and
· - Weak legal sanctions for sexual
violence.
- The
unequal position of women relative to men and the normative use of violence to
resolve conflicts are
strongly associated with both intimate partner violence
and sexual violence by any perpetrator.
Prevention
Currently,
there are few interventions whose effectiveness has been scientifically proven.
More resources are needed to strengthen the primary prevention of intimate
partner and sexual violence – i.e. stopping it from happening in the first
place.
The
primary prevention strategy with the best evidence for effectiveness for
intimate partner violence is school-based programmes for adolescents to prevent
violence within dating relationships. These, however, remain to be assessed for
use in resource-poor settings. Evidence is emerging for the effectiveness of
several other primary prevention strategies: those that combine microfinance
with gender equality training; that promote communication and relationship
skills within communities; that reduce access to, and the harmful use of
alcohol; and that change cultural gender norms.
To
achieve lasting change, it is important to enact legislation and develop
policies that protect women; address discrimination against women and promote
gender equality; and help to move the culture away from violence.
An
appropriate response from the health sector can contribute in important ways to
preventing the recurrence of violence and mitigating its consequences
(secondary and tertiary prevention). Sensitization and education of health and
other service providers is therefore another important strategy. To address
fully the consequences of violence and the needs of victims/survivors requires
a multi-sectoral response.
WHO response
WHO,
in collaboration with a number of partners, is building the evidence base on
the scope and types of intimate partner and sexual violence in different
settings and supporting countries' efforts to document and measure this
violence. This is central to understanding the magnitude and nature of the
problem at a global level; developing technical guidance for evidence-based
intimate partner and sexual violence prevention and for strengthening the
health sector responses to such violence; disseminating information and
supporting national efforts to advance women's rights and the prevention of and
response to intimate partner and sexual violence against women; and collaborating
with international agencies and organizations to reduce/eliminate intimate
partner and sexual violence globally (WHO, 2011)
Violence
and abuse affect women from all kinds of backgrounds every day. Sometimes,
women are attacked by strangers, but most often they are hurt by people who are
close to them. Violence and abuse can cause terrible physical and emotional
pain. But we are not alone, and we can get help.
Violence
against women is one of the most widespread human rights abuses. Every day,
thousands of women and girls are abused and murdered by their families, raped
in armed conflicts and attacked for defending women's rights.
Violence
against women and girls is one of the most widespread violations of human
rights. It can include physical, sexual, psychological and economic abuse, and
it cuts across boundaries of age, race, culture, wealth and geography. It takes
place in the home, on the streets, in schools, the workplace, in farm fields,
refugee camps, during conflicts and crises. It has many manifestations from the
most universally prevalent forms of domestic and sexual violence, to harmful
practices, abuse during pregnancy, so-called honour killings and other types of
femicide.
Therefore,
it is wise and advisable at this point of time that violence against women
should be stooped and the system of discrimination should be wiped out from the
ever crook and corners of the society and community.
Lots of people from rural areas
migrate to urban areas in search of better life. Bhutan has one of the most
rural labour forces and if the labour market gets expanded there will be least
problem related to the dilemma of not getting enough labour since rural labour
force are large. 
If Bhutan can expand its labour
market, the income of people will increase from present status as people would
have opportunities to work and earn their livelihood.
