Research Paper: Sherubtse College

Brief Background

Kanglung Gewog lies on the lateral route of Trashigang- Samdrup Jongkhar Highway and it is located 22 kms away from Trashigang Dzongkhag. The Kanglung Geog has an area of 63.30 sq. km and is located in the North of Khaling, North-East of Uzorong, South-West of Samkhar and has a border with Dremitse Geog of Mongar Dzongkhag. The Geog has a temperate climate with warm summer and cold winter. Geog landscape is mostly mountainous terrain; however, proper Kanglung is in gentle slope. The soil is acidic in nature. The highest altitude recorded in the Gewog is 3700 metres approximately and lowest altitude recorded is 550 metres approximately above the sea level. The main cash crop in the Gewog is potato and 80% of the farmers cultivate potatoes. The rest 20% cultivate other crops for the household purposes to meet their daily living.

Kanglung Geog has 8 Major Villages called Chewog, which further sub-divided into minor villages with minimum households of 1 to 2 and goes up to the maximum of 20 to 30 households. The people of this Geog speak Tshangla (Sharchop).

The Gewog has also a good business opportunity in future and presently the Gewog itself have 59 grocery shops and 10 restaurants benefitting the public in obtaining necessary food items. The Gewog is fully electrified by June 2010, and none of the village is left without electricity. In the field of Information and Communication, almost all the villages are connected with telephone and mobile services. The Gewog has one Post office where it delivers postal services to the public. The Gewog is access to the media with the establishment of Kuensel Regional Office in 2006. The Gewog has one TV subscriber connecting most of the villages by providing daily news and updating information to the public.

  

Aims and Objectives

The main objective of project is to find out the benefit of road construction between Kanglung BHU and Pangthang village. By connecting all unconnected habitations in the rural areas through construction of all-weather roads with necessary culverts and cross-drainage structures, in a manner that will provide the most economic and efficient connectivity thus promoting access to economic and social infrastructure as well as assist the habitants in crossing the Poverty Line.

Specific objectives

·     Promotion and preservation of nature while construction is underway.

·     Provide alternative income source by value addition by construction of road.

·     Socio-economic impact on the lives of the rural people as a result of enhanced rural connectivity provided and also to find out the changes/improvements brought about in rural sector.

Statement of the Purpose

The purpose of the Road and Driveway Ordinance is to establish procedures and standards for constructing roads and driveways within the Kanglung BHU and to supplement farm road standards leading towards Pangthang Village.

Description of Project

Environmentally sound forest road construction techniques as holistic, interdisciplinary approaches that take into account the need for landscape and wildlife considerations should replace purely technology-oriented solutions and are to be guided by the following principal considerations:

·         Any disturbance to the landscape is to be kept to the absolute minimum;

·         Environmentally sound correction of poorly located and designed roads at a later stage is virtually impossible;

·         Reckless and incompetent construction work may destroy the beneficial effects of even the most carefully selected road location (layout, alignment);

·         Undesired effects and scars inflicted on the landscape can seldom be remedied at a later stage and only at much higher costs.

Equal attention is to be paid to the three phases in road construction projects namely, planning and design, construction operation, and integration which comprises bioengineering as well as landscaping measures. All operations undertaken are guided by the consideration that unless the forest is left in a condition that will permit the attainment of a desired future condition, sustainability cannot be assured.

Project Log Frame

Log frame is a tool for summarizing the key features of a project design at the time of project identification (what is it?) during definition (what should we do?) and appraisal (should we do it?). It is an up-front planner which provides the Project Team with essential planning information for the development of project plans.

For carrying out the quick impact assessment of the road construction between Kanglung BHU and Pangthang village. The methodology, as decided, adopted for the present study is to carry out two Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) in each of the two connected habitations - one with people of Kanglung and one group with people of Pangthang. The FGDs in each habitation include one for the male and the other for the female participants.

Besides the FGDs, interviews with the village functionaries or elder group etc will be also conducted and Case Studies in each village will be carried out.

Parameters

·         Agricultural Production

·         Employment

·         Industry

·         Health

·         Education

·         Social Aspects

·         Transportation

·         Urbanization, and

·         Poverty Alleviation

Project implementation plan

The Kanglung BHU-Pangthang Road Implementation Plan will be updated following additional public consultation. The plan will be submitted to our module tutor and accordingly the decision will be taken.

To complement the implementation plan, design guidance for road within the area will be developed. Accordingly guidance will be made up for public realm strategy

The guidance produced will ensure that any future developers in this area achieve the high design standards for road construction. They include aspects of highway design, landscape, community safety, development block and street layout, connectivity, parking, sustainable drainage, accessibility, materials and local distinctiveness. There is freedom to develop designs at the planning application stage - but they set down some important parameters about position, height, fronts and backs, and entrances. The codes are based on a framework that shows how the different regeneration projects will come together to create a sustainable new road connecting two places.

 Predicted impacts and analysis

There are two general categories of species or species groups showing negative effects of roads on animal abundance: species that are vulnerable to traffic disturbances (noise, lights, pollution, traffic motion) and species that are vulnerable to road mortality. Vulnerability to traffic disturbance likely explains many of the bird responses and some of the mid- and large-sized mammal responses. Traffic noise seems to be a problem for communication among songbirds, possibly leading to low abundances near roads, and direct observations and large mammals have behavioral avoidance of roads for some species.

Vulnerability to road mortality likely explains most of the amphibian and reptile responses, as well as some of the mid-sized and large mammal responses. Several factors combine to make a species vulnerable to road mortality. Species that are either attracted to roads or do not avoid roads, and that show low car avoidance (e.g., slow-moving species) are particularly vulnerable. This combination is most likely responsible for the frequent negative effects of roads and traffic on abundances of amphibians and reptiles. For example, some snakes use the road surface for thermoregulation, some turtles lay their eggs in gravel roads or road shoulders. Therefore, these animals are likely to enter the road surface and, in combination with their need for seasonal migrations between breeding and overwintering sites, as well as their slow movement across the road, experience very high mortality rates.

The three dominant effects of roads on the environment are alteration of runoff from forested watersheds, mass wasting and surface erosion. Sedimentation of streams is particularly serious in upland areas. Sedimentation can also shorten the life of reservoirs and water supply systems relying on forests for quality water for domestic and industrial uses. Peak discharges may be altered in basins following forest road construction. Forest roads complicate the hydrology in harvested watershed). In watersheds with high infiltration capacity and where hill slope flow is dominantly subsurface, roads have the potential to increase surface runoff and intercept subsurface flow. Changing the hydrologic properties of a watershed will often change the upland stream sedimentation processes and adversely impact downstream structures such as reservoirs, bridges, and other features in the stream’s flood plain.

In steep terrain, where the climate may lead to saturated road prisms, slope stability failures may lead to greater sedimentation in streams than surface erosion. In many cases, the sediment particle sizes from stability failures may be much larger than from surface erosion, and may include large rocks and boulders in excess of a meter diameter.

The large number of trees and plant will be uprooted and it will have larger effect on functioning of ecosystem in particular.

Environmental management plan

·         Construction procedures and location of the construction site.

·         Start date and duration of the procedure.

·         Materials, equipment and labor to be used.

·         How materials, equipment and labor would be moved to and from the site as well as on site during construction.

·         Storage, removal and subsequent handling of all materials, excess materials and waste materials of the procedure.

·         Emergency procedures in case of any reasonably potential accident / incident which could occur during the procedure.

·         Site clearing

·         Site layout and establishment

·         Hazardous substances

·         Cement and concrete batching (for each operation)

·         Traffic accommodation

·         Solid waste control system

·         Wastewater control system

·         Erosion remediation and stabilization

·         Bridge demolition and construction

·         Fire control and emergency procedures

·         Alien vegetation clearing programme

·         Vegetation rehabilitation plan

Project implementation schedule

Planner begins with a result (i.e. a facility design) and must synthesize the steps required to yield this result. Essential aspects of construction planning include the generation of required activities, analysis of the implications of these activities, and choice among the various alternative means of performing activities. Construction planners also face the normative problem of choosing the best among numerous alternative plans. Planner must imagine the final facility as described in the plans and specifications.

In developing a construction plan, it is common to adopt a primary emphasis on either cost control or on schedule control as illustrated in figure below. Some projects are primarily divided into expense categories with associated costs. In these cases, construction planning is cost or expense oriented. Within the categories of expenditure, a distinction is made between costs incurred directly in the performance of an activity and indirectly for the accomplishment of the project. For example, borrowing expenses for project financing and overhead items are commonly treated as indirect costs. For other projects, scheduling of work activities over time is critical and is emphasized in the planning process. Finally, most complex projects require consideration of cost and scheduling over time, so that planning, monitoring and record keeping must consider both dimensions. In these cases, the integration of schedule and budget information is a major concern.

UNREVEALED LOVE

The moment to remember, days to cheer up for,

Walk to walk with my life,
 Cheerful worthwhile are not preordained for me, not made for me.

Coming from the remote part of crook,

Have got no good idea about the on all sides of ambiance,

Tried to do as other do, copied the Martian culture, and made myself masquerading.

Yeah! All are in worthless, became the target of all stare at,

For I have done the insane toil.

All peers of mine thought what I were not supposed to be,

For I am not trying to be what I am believed to be.

Seemingly, I am in love in the company of her, no comrade of mine are aware,

Oh God! Am I in love, or it’s just an infatuation.

But pledge to all lords, my love is in no way to be revealed.

One is passionate about by me, difficult to get, no word to filch her.

Anxious to put in the picture to her, for she will bouquet me up like brushwood.

Reciting My life

The sun has begun to illuminate. How uplifting to see such sight. The rectification, complaint, intact pathetic condition lies in the heart of “Minjurling Hostel”. An understanding of futility of the worldly life seems saddening. To cover my feeling of sadness, it recites in my heart. The motivation roster in the form of indirect statement. The babbles eloquent confuse me with spicy hurting responses. To be distinguished I freeze with the skating trail on my part and melting gates turning point of my life of tears.

Sometimes with the tears on my eye, I feel myself obsolete to be born in this mundane world. In fact I sometimes differentiate why tears and smile not a superiority to promote one self as wallpaper on the eye of the people. An innumerable issue stimulates my brain down to society and up to paradise. The high voltage of electric current runs to my blood giving shock instead of light.

I realize once purposes absolutely essential to reflect the essentialism as human being not as animal being. As a whole virtues act of philosopher  achieve ones goal  to every being yet I being shrewd, dominating rather vibrant turn away all the deeds ironically. It seems at the outside of my life, time gradually revolved into collusion always. Which prove I’m filled with dislike, desatisfaction, disfavored and discontent?

In this condition I need a strong background to take up strong line. There was time lacking quick decision and waiting for good responses. This drawback upholds the dignity to be dignified and learnt the lesson of faith and trust. Once as I sat by shade with the profound depth, understanding ultimately about the remedy of my pain. To the extent I fully realize and guard my life to through the act of “love”.

To be frank I am man with manly character. For me romance doesn't have true meaning without meeting with mind. I always believe that love would bless me but it was forbidden one. I never thought this feeling would come yet it seems it is a way of life. Life sometimes somewhere found strange that nothing can be ever invented by spontaneous act of my mind. Yes indeed my life was full of darkness and requires light to lighten my life. Yet I am waiting for this moment to come.

The days being tensed with the assignment and exam fever and realization for relaxation tune went louder and louder. Again the government holiday of 11^th November gave me a chance for another relaxation. Indeed this holiday was just like a scissor that both the end comes close and apart. I realize why these things always shuffle on my way of life. And time and again it made to think to the deepest that I have ever known. As I cannot digest the thing at once, with passion I waited for but neither it give me a peace. Now it was a chance perhaps revealing about my love with the deep kisses rolling the tongue of her lips. As and when I dedicated my time with her and always wish her to be by my side. As I thought she reciprocates what I felt and dreamt about.

“Is this a life”? I say it is and was. At times life was sharing moment between the gentle heart and sweet heart. Ironically, the day absolutely the bad day assume to witness my weakness. My weakness stored for a while and takes it as a challenge. With the challenge I drank with profound joy but my inner part of body seems not functioning. The pain multiplies me overtime and again asking me about peace. Does this world ask for peace? Definitely every leader dreamt about peace after destruction heavily caused by first and Second World War. Sometimes I felt that I was left in between battle field with the bullet shot on me with the bloody face struggling to survive. However I was drowned into a pain of blood never to be rejuvenated yet the fairly angel whisper my name to wake up as I woke up I was saved from being dead and prayed to god to save me and put me in safer place. As he understood he gave me an answer which says “FORGET HER, FORGET HER, FORGET HER……………”

                       

Responsibility of Youth: Who cares for whom?

According to records of 2009, the total rate of youth unemployment in Bhutan was around 12.09%. It is because of the hard work and dedication of Ministry of Labour, they brought down the huge gap of unemployment drastically down in the year 2012. Approximately, today there is about 6.3% youth unemployment in Bhutan.

It is gloomy moment in our country that young educated Bhutanese who will be the future of the country seems to be losing their way in the dark side of the realm. Due to the change in time and due to the modernization in Bhutan, there are too many ways of diversion coming on their way as soon as they are unchecked from the vision of parents or teachers. How, who, when and where our youth will be showed and convey them to the perfection.

No agency of such are there to look after, and in the interim, they mislay their sentiment and embroil themselves in unproductive work advancing in doing what they are not supposed to do.

Today, the youth involved in substance abuse, making money in illegal ways and involving themselves in gang fights with no reason is common occurrences to be seen in Bhutan. The steady increase in Drop in centers in Bhutan signposts that there are more youths involving themselves in unproductive work. However, these centers are not able to avert one from trying out substance abuse.

In the 11^th Five Year Plan, the crime among the youth is listed as one of the emerging issues in Bhutan. Having listed and recognized the issues, one has to find an answer to overcome. Is anyone trying to address the issues and coming up with the elucidation?

Today, Bhutan is exporting happiness to the outside world, but having done nothing bringing happiness indoors, isn’t it an issue of immense interrogation to all of us. Bhutan’s future are sullying their own life and expecting nothing from anybody. If these possessions continue, will there be happiness left in our country. If one society enjoys the happiness and other side of the coin doesn’t, then can we express the meaning of happiness?

Every worried citizen is in the hope of some kind of agency who will step in and make the bad into good and bring right things in the right place. We take it for granted that it’s just a minor and nothing is done. But, when the minor turns into major, then the peril of realism is traumatized. Who will act and who will not, it’s just the apprehensions among those youth who wants to be successful in their life.

Partying, drinking and smoking are not only common amongst the youth who are unemployed. But youth who are working also does the same. The only alteration that makes between two is just the question of having and not having job and the way two rims think. Those who are employed and working are also interested in doing those things which other party does. Those who are employed are steadfast and meticulous fellows to make their life good. What so ever, given the chance and rooms for improvement those who are unemployed can also become productive citizen?

All we need to plug in at this stage is who will do what, and what will happen next. We wish and hope that in times to come, the crime rate among youths will decline and things will be working impeccably.  As quoted by Ernest Hemingway, “The error of youth is to believe that intelligence is a substitute for experience, while the error of age is to believe experience is a substitute for intelligence”. Consequently, the error of youth shouldn’t be acknowledged but the substitute for their errors should be brought into the contemplation.

SWOT Analysis on Improvement of Bhutan Labour Market

Strength

    1.Agricultural Market

    2.  Rural Labor force

    3. Working as group

Weakness   

    1.Low investment on tertiary sector

    2. Peoples attitude

    3.Low trade of good and service
     
    Opportunities
    1.  Increase in income

    2. Job opportunities

    3. Growth in GDP
   
    Threat
    1. Decline in quality of labor

    2.   Financial Crisis

    3. Good and services may not be of standard one

    

ANALYSIS

·         Strength

Approximately 90% of Bhutan’s population relies on agriculture. Hence, lots of peoples are working in agricultural sector thereby making labour force in agricultural field the most. Therefore, if Bhutan expands its labour force the flow in agricultural market will be the utmost thus generating income of both nation and individual.

Lots of people from rural areas migrate to urban areas in search of better life. Bhutan has one of the most rural labour forces and if the labour market gets expanded there will be least problem related to the dilemma of not getting enough labour since rural labour force are large.

Bhutanese are dedicated person and whatever they do they do it committedly and in groups. Working in groups particularly in labour market will take labour market from one level to another higher level.

•          Weakness

However, expansion in Bhutan’s labour market will be facing a challenging task as there are low investments in tertiary sector. Bhutan’s entrepreneurs are not well enough to make a big investment particularly in labour market.

Moreover, Bhutanese have an attitude where they want be superior and they don’t want to start inferior. Hence, the attitude of peoples will attract less number of labour forces.

Even if Bhutan would improve its labour market, the good and services thus produced would be left in stake as Bhutan’s trade status with other countries is less as of now.

•          Opportunities

If Bhutan can expand its labour market, the income of people will increase from present status as people would have opportunities to work and earn their livelihood.

Moreover, country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) would increase as the production of good and services will intimately increase.

Nonetheless, Bhutan’s current problem of unemployment would be solved within no time. Expansion of labour market will create more job opportunities thus enhancing unemployed to get employed.

•          Threat

If more number of Bhutanese is working in various fields, it indicates the low number of hiring of foreign labour who is far better than Bhutanese labour. Therefore, the quality of labour would ultimately decline as less qualified and skilled labour will be available in market.

With less skilled and qualified labour, the good and services that will be produced will be of low quality and there would be low buyers. In this case, the investment done for the business will be running into losses and finally it would lead to financial crisis. Similarly, the good and services thus produced will not meet the market standard.

Recommendation

.       Expand labour market unless it does not affect quality of labour

.       Encourage less investor

.       Make rules and regulation that governs the right and responsibilities of labour and the entrepreneurs.

SWOT Analysis on “Should Bhutan Join WTO”

Strength
1.   Nation of GNH
2. Culturally guided Country
3.Rich environment
Weakness
1.Young Democratic Nation
2. Low economic rate
Opportunities
1.Job opportunities

      2. Increase in FDI

      Threat

1.Decline in Environment

2. Cultural threat

3. Loss of small and cottage industries

·         Strength

Our country is only nation which is guided by the principle of Gross National Happiness. In the developmental activities Bhutan not only follows development but it also focuses on the happiness of the people. Development is not superior in Bhutan at the cost of people’s happiness. Therefore, Bhutan joining WTO will be favorable since GNH is considered superior.

Since the time Bhutan emerged as nation state, Bhutan had a good cultural background and with times it doesn't lost its cultural values and ethic. Bhutan has a great cultural background and it will enable Bhutan joining WTO.

Moreover, Bhutan has a rich environment which will help Bhutan develop from one stage to another stage by joining WTO.
·         Weakness

However, Bhutan is one of the Young Democratic Nation in the world, and therefore, Bhutan has got most challenging task ahead to solve within. Therefore, if Bhutan joins WTO at this hour, Bhutan will lose all its ethic and political reign. Bhutan will go through lots of chaos and trouble.

Bhutan’s economic rate is low as compared to other nation. Bhutan is in verge of development, and its developmental activities are yet to flourish and grow from one level to another level. At this time if Bhutan is joining WTO, Bhutan will face lots of problem and it may cost Bhutan to live below poverty line. So it is advisable that Bhutan should refrain from joining WTO.

·         Opportunities

If Bhutan is joining WTO, it will create lots of job opportunities in our country. The present problems of unemployment will be solved within no time and the unemployment rate will fall gradually. Therefore, our economic rate will grow to compete in global market.

Bhutan joining WTO will attract lots of Foreign Direct Investment meaning bringing income to our country. Lots of FDI indicates that our economic status will grow to a higher stage.

                  ·         Threat

Bhutan joining WTO will attract lots of foreign investment in our country and for that it will cost our environment to decline. Our rich environment will decline and our evergreen nation might become barren.

Our country will attract lots of foreigner visiting and with them bringing lots of culture. Our country might get used to their culture and it will cost our rich cultural heritage to decline.

Bhutan has small and cottage industries that are in verge of functioning into full swing. Our industries are growing and it might take some time. But if Bhutan joins WTO then, lots of FDI meaning Bhutan’s CSI will be running into losses and finally it might have to leave market. Therefore, it is not good enough for Bhutan to join WTO.

Recommendation
.       Bhutan shouldn't be joining WTO
.       Bhutan should have delegation to WTO
.       Bhutan should study WTO’s terms and condition in full length.
.       Bhutan should study its market status before joining WTO

Violence Against Women

The United Nations defines violence against women as 'any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life.' (WHO, 2011).

Intimate partner violence refers to behaviour in an intimate relationship that causes physical, sexual or psychological harm, including physical aggression, sexual coercion, and psychological abuse and controlling behaviours.

Sexual violence is any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed against a person’s sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any setting. It includes rape, defined as the physically forced or otherwise coerced penetration of the vulva or anus with a penis, other body part or object.

Some historians believe that the history of violence against women is tied to the history of women being viewed as property and a gender role assigned to be subservient to men and also other women. The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993) states that "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women, and that violence against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared with men.” In the 1870s courts in the United States stopped recognizing the common-law principle that a husband had the right to "physically chastise an errant wife". In the UK the traditional right of a husband to inflict moderate corporal punishment on his wife in order to keep her "within the bounds of duty" was removed in 1891(UNO, 1993).

Types of violence

1. Domestic violence

Women are more likely to be victimized by someone that they are intimate with, commonly called "Intimate Partner Violence" or (IPV). The impact of domestic violence in the sphere of total violence against women can be understood through the example that 40-70% of murders of women are committed by their husband or boyfriend. Studies have shown that violence is not always perpetrated as a form of physical violence but can also be psychological and verbal. In unmarried relationships this is commonly called dating violence, whereas in the context of marriage it is called domestic violence. Instances of IPV tend not to be reported to police and thus many experts believe that the true magnitude of the problem is hard to estimate. Women are much more likely than men to be murdered by an intimate partner. Though this form of violence is often portrayed as an issue within the context of heterosexual relationships, it also occurs in lesbian relationships, daughter-mother relationships, roommate relationships and other domestic relationships involving two women. Violence against women in lesbian relationships is about as common as violence against women in heterosexual relationships.

2. Diagnosis planning

Couples with marital disorders sometimes come to clinical attention because the couple recognizes long-standing dissatisfaction with their marriage and come to the clinician on their own initiative or are referred by an astute health care professional. Secondly, there is serious violence in the marriage which is "usually the husband battering the wife". In these cases the emergency room or a legal authority often is the first to notify the clinician. Most importantly, marital violence "is a major risk factor for serious injury and even death and women in violent marriages are at much greater risk of being seriously injured or killed. There is current considerable controversy over whether male-to-female marital violence is best regarded as a reflection of male psychopathology and control or whether there is an empirical base and clinical utility for conceptualizing these patterns as relational.

3. Mob violence

Some women have been sexually abused and were targeted not just because they are women, but because they are living alone and are economically independent.

4. State violence

· Labor camps

Many women underwent extrajudicial punishment in labor camps of and women faces problems in camps.

· War and militarism

Militarism produces special environments that allow for increased violence against women. For example, during World War II, the Japanese military established brothels for soldiers, exploiting women for the purpose of creating access and entitlement for men.

Violence in empowerment systems

When police officers misuse their power as agents of the state to physically and sexually harass and assault women, the survivors feel much less able to report the violence. It is standard procedure for police to force entry into the victim's home even after the victim's numerous requests for them to go away. Government agencies often disregard the victim's right to freedom of association with their perpetrator. Shelter workers are often reduced themselves to contributing to violence against women by exploiting their vulnerability in exchange for a paying job.

Activism

Many activists believe that working towards the elimination of domestic violence means working to eliminate a societal hierarchy enforced through sexism. Women of Color Against Violence cited racism within the anti-violence movement and suggest that violence against women will not end until the anti-violence movement re-directs its goal from "ending violence against women" to "ending violence against women of color." The same conclusion can be drawn for other systems of oppression.

Scope of the problem

Population-level surveys based on reports from victims provide the most accurate estimates of the prevalence of intimate partner violence and sexual violence in non-conflict settings. The WHO Multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence against women in 10 mainly developing countries found that, among women aged 15 to 49 years:

·         between 15% of women in Japan and 70% of women in Ethiopia and Peru reported physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner;

·         between 0.3–11.5% of women reported experiencing sexual violence by a non-partner;

·         The first sexual experience for many women was reported as forced – 24% in rural Peru, 28% in Tanzania, 30% in rural Bangladesh, and 40% in South Africa.

Source: - World Health Organization, 2011

Intimate partner and sexual violence are mostly perpetrated by men against girls and women. However, sexual violence against boys is also common. International studies reveal that approximately 20% of women and 5–10% of men report being victims of sexual violence as children.

Health consequences

Intimate partner and sexual violence have serious short- and long-term physical, mental, sexual and reproductive health problems for victims and for their children, and lead to high social and economic costs.

Health effects can include headaches, back pain, abdominal pain, fibromyalgia, gastrointestinal disorders, limited mobility and poor overall health. In some cases, both fatal and non-fatal injuries can result.

Intimate partner violence and sexual violence can lead to unintended pregnancies, gynecological problems, induced abortions and sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Intimate partner violence in pregnancy also increases the likelihood of miscarriage, stillbirth, pre-term delivery and low birth weight.

These forms of violence can lead to depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, sleep difficulties, eating disorders, and emotional distress and suicide attempts.

Sexual violence, particularly during childhood, can lead to increased smoking, drug and alcohol misuse, and risky sexual behaviors in later life. It is also associated with perpetration of violence (for males) and being a victim of violence (for females).

Impact on children

Children who grow up in families where there is intimate partner violence may suffer a range of behavioural and emotional disturbances that can be associated with the perpetration or experiencing of violence later in life.

Intimate partner violence has also been associated with higher rates of infant and child mortality and morbidity (e.g. diarrheal disease, malnutrition).

Social and economic costs

The social and economic costs are enormous and have ripple effects throughout society. Women may suffer isolation, inability to work, loss of wages, lack of participation in regular activities and limited ability to care for themselves and their children.

Risk factors

Factors found to be associated with intimate partner and sexual violence – or risk factors – occur within individuals, families and communities and wider society. Some factors are associated with perpetrators of violence, some are associated with the victims of violence and some are associated with both.

Risk factors for both intimate partner and sexual violence include:

·       -   lower levels of education (perpetrators and victims);

·      -   exposure to child maltreatment (perpetrators and victims);

·       -  witnessing parental violence (perpetrators and victims);

·        -  antisocial personality disorder (perpetrators);

·         - harmful use of alcohol (perpetrators and victims);

·         - males who have multiple partners or are suspected by their partners of infidelity (perpetrators); and

·         -  Attitudes that are accepting of violence (perpetrators and victims).

Risk factors specific to intimate partner violence include:

·         -  past history of violence as a perpetrator or victim;

·       -   Marital discord and dissatisfaction (perpetrators and victims).

Risk factors specific to sexual violence perpetration include:

·        -  beliefs in family honour and sexual purity;

·        -  ideologies of male sexual entitlement; and

·        -  Weak legal sanctions for sexual violence.

- The unequal position of women relative to men and the normative use of violence to resolve conflicts are 

strongly associated with both intimate partner violence and sexual violence by any perpetrator.

Prevention

Currently, there are few interventions whose effectiveness has been scientifically proven. More resources are needed to strengthen the primary prevention of intimate partner and sexual violence – i.e. stopping it from happening in the first place.

The primary prevention strategy with the best evidence for effectiveness for intimate partner violence is school-based programmes for adolescents to prevent violence within dating relationships. These, however, remain to be assessed for use in resource-poor settings. Evidence is emerging for the effectiveness of several other primary prevention strategies: those that combine microfinance with gender equality training; that promote communication and relationship skills within communities; that reduce access to, and the harmful use of alcohol; and that change cultural gender norms.

To achieve lasting change, it is important to enact legislation and develop policies that protect women; address discrimination against women and promote gender equality; and help to move the culture away from violence.

An appropriate response from the health sector can contribute in important ways to preventing the recurrence of violence and mitigating its consequences (secondary and tertiary prevention). Sensitization and education of health and other service providers is therefore another important strategy. To address fully the consequences of violence and the needs of victims/survivors requires a multi-sectoral response.

  

 WHO response

WHO, in collaboration with a number of partners, is building the evidence base on the scope and types of intimate partner and sexual violence in different settings and supporting countries' efforts to document and measure this violence. This is central to understanding the magnitude and nature of the problem at a global level; developing technical guidance for evidence-based intimate partner and sexual violence prevention and for strengthening the health sector responses to such violence; disseminating information and supporting national efforts to advance women's rights and the prevention of and response to intimate partner and sexual violence against women; and collaborating with international agencies and organizations to reduce/eliminate intimate partner and sexual violence globally (WHO, 2011)

Violence and abuse affect women from all kinds of backgrounds every day. Sometimes, women are attacked by strangers, but most often they are hurt by people who are close to them. Violence and abuse can cause terrible physical and emotional pain. But we are not alone, and we can get help.

Violence against women is one of the most widespread human rights abuses. Every day, thousands of women and girls are abused and murdered by their families, raped in armed conflicts and attacked for defending women's rights.

Violence against women and girls is one of the most widespread violations of human rights. It can include physical, sexual, psychological and economic abuse, and it cuts across boundaries of age, race, culture, wealth and geography. It takes place in the home, on the streets, in schools, the workplace, in farm fields, refugee camps, during conflicts and crises. It has many manifestations from the most universally prevalent forms of domestic and sexual violence, to harmful practices, abuse during pregnancy, so-called honour killings and other types of femicide.

Therefore, it is wise and advisable at this point of time that violence against women should be stooped and the system of discrimination should be wiped out from the ever crook and corners of the society and community.